Covenant (ahd) and the duty to keep it; oath by the covenant of God

In the lexicon, 'ahd is covenant, pledge, safe-conduct, guarantee and oath, and whatever is between people by way of agreement; it differs from the contract ('aqd) in that a covenant may be a binding pledge or a promise without binding force ^{1 2}. Promise (wa'd) is a notice of something to be made in future, and bay'a is an oath of obedience ². Islam requires keeping the covenant; the Prophet kept his covenants, breaking one is forbidden, and he counted breaking a covenant as treachery ^{2 3}. Islam forbids wronging a covenant partner, and breaking a covenant before its term ends ³. An oath by God's covenant is an oath with the consequences of any oath, and the Shafi'is require that the swearer intended an oath by it ^{3 4}.

J. Schacht's article notes that 'ahd (injunction, command, and then obligation and agreement) and the forms of its verb occur often in the Qur'an, covering God's covenant with humankind and His commands, the believers' religious commitment, political undertakings between believers and unbelievers and with the Prophet, and ordinary civil agreements. The idea of God's covenant gave the Christian Arabic terms for the Old and New Testaments. The concrete root idea is "joining together", while 'aqd (contract) rests on the idea of binding. In later usage 'aqd covers civil engagements and contracts, while 'ahd is generally limited to political enactments and treaties, especially a ruler's appointment of a successor (wali al-'ahd) and treaties of alliance with non-Muslims outside the Islamic state, who are called ahl al-'ahd. The term is sometimes extended to the musta'min (see aman) and to the dhimmis (see dhimma); aman and dhimma are a political 'ahd with religious sanction. ⁵